When you think about Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, what
is the image that appears in your mind? I expect that most people who have some
knowledge of the concept would think of a pyramid in which needs are layered
one on top of the other, with physiological needs at the bottom and
self-actualization needs at the top. If you have no idea what I am talking
about, there is no need to worry. Andy Ogden’s sailboat illustration, provided
above, is better. That image has been used effectively by Scott Barry
Kaufman in Transcend, his recently published book which seeking to
update Maslow’s hierarchy.
Kaufman points out that the pyramid image was created by a
management consultant rather than by Maslow. He argues that the pyramid “had
the unfortunate consequence of reducing Maslow’s rich and nuanced intellectual
contributions to a parody and has betrayed the actual spirit of Maslow’s notion
of self-actualization as realizing one’s creative potential for humanitarian
ends”.
I have read many books aimed at the self-help market, but Transcend
has more endorsements by psychologists than any I have previously read. Those praising
the book include Martin Seligman, Steven Hayes and Steven Pinker. My inner
economist tells me that there must be something wrong with a book preceded by five
pages of praise, but I haven’t found much wrong with this one.
Kaufman’s sailboat image captures Maslow’s idea that all
needs can be grouped into two main classes, deficiency needs and growth needs. The
planks of the boat represent deficiency needs and the sails represents growth
(or self-actualization).
In explaining his metaphor, Kaufman suggests:
“Life isn’t a trek up a summit but a journey to travel
through – a vast blue ocean, full of opportunities for new meaning and
discovery but also danger and uncertainty”.
The deficiency needs that comprise the boat, safety,
connection, and self-esteem work as a dynamic system. Under good conditions
they work together toward greater security and stability. Under unfavourable
conditions, they can lead toward insecurity and instability, causing people to
focus attention on defending themselves.
The growth needs comprising the sails are exploration, love,
and purpose. Kaufman suggests that “the drive for exploration is the core
motive underlying self-actualization”. It involves the desire to seek out and
make sense of novel, challenging and uncertain events. Love and purpose can
build on the fundamental need for exploration. Loving is noted to be a powerful
force, linked to growth, compassion, coping and authenticity. Purpose is
defined as “the need for an overarching aspiration that energizes one’s efforts
and provides a central source of meaning and significance in one’s life”.
Kaufman sensibly emphasizes the hazards of attempting to
fulfill a need for purpose without working on other areas of growth:
“It is entirely possible to choose a striving that brings
out the worst in yourself and others because it is motivated by a desperate,
never-ending quest to fill a deficiency in one of the security needs, whether
it’s safety, belonging, or self-esteem”.
The need for transcendence is depicted as being in the sky
above the sails. Kaufman suggests that transcendence “goes beyond individual
growth (and even health and happiness) and allows for the highest levels of unity
and harmony within oneself and with the world”. Some further explanation might
be helpful for those who, like me, read that and think immediately that they
don’t need mystical experiences. The transcending experiences written about are
not all mystical. Kaufman notes that transcendence incorporates a “unitary
continuum,” of experiences ranging from becoming engrossed in a book, sports
performance, or creative activity (what psychologist Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi
refers to as the flow experience), to experiencing awe at a beautiful sunset
etc, all the way up to the great mystical illumination.
A particularly useful contribution of the book is to make a
clear distinction between healthy self-esteem and narcissism. Kaufman points
out that narcissism is not just high self-esteem, in the sense of a quiet and
sturdy confidence in oneself. Narcissists feel superior; they are arrogant and
unwilling to accept criticism.
In writing the book, Kaufman has drawn on Maslow’s unpublished
writings to illustrate the range and depth of his thinking. This passage, written
by Maslow about 50 years ago, has contemporary relevance:
“It is … vital to
emphasize that a democratic society is rooted in a set of feelings toward other
people—feelings like compassion and respect. … If we did not trust other people, if we did
not like them, if we did not pity them, if we did not have brotherly or
sisterly feelings for them, then a democratic society would of course be out of
the question. Obviously, human history provides many examples to prove this
point.”
Readers may have guessed already that I am impressed by
Kaufman’s book. In my view he does an excellent job in bringing together many
findings of psychologists relating to personal development. I particularly like
the imagery in his use of the sailboat metaphor because it recognizes that each
individual has prime responsibility for his or her own journey through life.
